All known nests in Iraq have been on cliffs. Rocky, low mountainous areas are used for nesting in Israel. 80% of nests in Spain are on rocky cliffs, the remaining 20% being in trees. In the Spanish Pyrenees, however, nest were found at up to 1,500 m (4,900 ft) in elevation. Rural, arid areas of Europe such as the Iberian peninsula, Provence in France and the Apennines in Italy, fire combined with pastoral activity has maintained suitable nesting sites at relatively low elevations. Greek nests are mostly on cliff ledges, but in the Evros District, nearly 30% of the population nests on trees, mostly pines. Similarly, in Bulgaria, Italy, Switzerland, France and Yugoslavia, more than 90% of golden eagles nests were located on cliffs. 95.6% of 410 nests built in Scotland were on cliffs. In Spain, studies revealed the preferred sites of golden eagle nests were on inaccessible cliffs at a great distance from tracks, roads and villages. A massive benefit to cliff nests is that they tend to be largely or entirely inaccessible to mammalian predators on foot (including humans). This height preference may be related to having the ability to transport heavy prey downhill rather than uphill. Nests are generally located at around half of the maximum elevation of the surrounding land. Golden eagles seem to prefer to build their nests on cliffs where they are available. Nest requirements The cliff nest of a golden eagle Due to the consistency of use by golden eagle pairs, population densities change generally happens only quite gradually. The nesting density for a breeding population near Livermore, California, and the Altamont Pass Wind Farm is among the highest in the world for golden eagles, with at least 44 pairs in 1997, a density of one pair per 19 km (12 mi).

In the Snake River canyon in Idaho, nests are 5 to 8 km (3.1 to 5.0 mi) apart, while two other nearby studies in Idaho found the average distance were 4.3 km (2.7 mi) and 4.39 km (2.73 mi), respectively. In Quebec, the distance between nests ranged from 8 to 44.7 km (5.0 to 27.8 mi). In the wooded peatlands of Sweden and Belarus, a maximum of 5 pairs appear to occur per 1,000 km 2 (390 sq mi). In Wyoming, the distance between nests ranged from 3.1 to 8.2 km (1.9 to 5.1 mi), averaging 5.3 km (3.3 mi).

Wyoming had the greatest densities of breeding golden eagles of any complied study, though numbers were comparable to western Scotland as there were an average of just over 20 pairs per 1,000 km 2 (390 sq mi), with greatest estimated densities of possibly 125 per area. In the United States different areas had from 10 to more than 20 pairs on average per 1,000 km 2 (390 sq mi). In much of continental Europe, densities of less than 10 pairs per 1,000 km 2 (390 sq mi) are typical. Nests in Scotland may found at anywhere from 10 to 65 pairs per 1,000 km 2 (390 sq mi), with an average of over 20 pairs found per area. In 9 studies of annual nest spacing, the average minimum distance between nests range from 16 km (9.9 mi) apart in Norway to 8 km (5.0 mi) apart in Switzerland. Their nesting areas are characterized by the extreme regularity of the nest spacing. Golden eagles typically build several eyries within their territory and use them alternately for several years. Compared to the bald eagle, golden eagles do not repeat courtship displays annually (which is believed to strengthen pair bonds) and rarely engage in talon-locking downward spirals. Small sticks may also be used in this display. The female takes a clump of earth and drops and catches it in the same fashion. This courtship includes undulating displays by both in the pair, with the male bird picking up a piece of rock and dropping it only to enter into a steep dive and catch it in mid-air, repeating the maneuver 3 or more times. A breeding pair is formed in a courtship display. Eyrie (in hollow at left center) in the Valley of the Siagne de la Pare, Alpes-Maritimes, France

Gold eagle